[BITList] Bullian and the Bank

[John Feltham]

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Rothschild,  Nathan Mayer  (1777-1836), merchant and financier, was born on 16 September 1777 at Frankfurt am Main, Germany. He was the son of Mayer Amschel Rothschild (1744-1812), coin dealer and money lender, and his wife Gutle (1753-1849), daughter of Wolf Schnapper, a wealthy Frankfurt merchant. Nathan was the fourth child and the third son in a family of ten children.

Origins and move to England

Nathan Rothschild was born in Frankfurt's Judengasse where his family had lived for generations. The family name is derived from the name of a house in the Judengasse, zum roten Schild (at the sign of the red shield), in which Isaak, son of Elchanan, lived from 1567, the first of the line to be identified by the Rothschild name. The spelling 'Mayer' was used by Mayer Amschel Rothschild and his descendants rather than the more usual Meyer; in 1785 he bought a larger property in the Judengasse, 'the house of the green shield', which remained his widow's home until her death. In the late nineteenth century the family managed to save the property during the reconstruction of the Judengasse, and some rooms were opened to the public as a Rothschild museum. The interior was destroyed by the Nazis in 1938 and the entire building razed by allied bombing in 1944.

Mayer Rothschild's business had originally centred on a trade in antique coins with clients such as Prince William of Hesse, with whom he made contact through an established customer, General von Estorff. His early transactions were not large, but in recognition of his services he was granted the title of Hoffaktor (court agent) in 1769. Gradually his business developed to embrace the discounting of bills and foreign currency trading, as well as general commodity dealing, including the important and remunerative market in British textiles.

After a traditional Jewish education Nathan Rothschild was taken into the family business, at the age of twelve. He spent some time working as an agent or traveller, making journeys to places such as Brussels, Paris, and Basel, to procure commissions from large merchant houses for British cotton goods. He also negotiated with import agents attending the great German trade fairs. By his own account he left Frankfurt for England in 1798 after a disagreement with a British merchant. He later implied that the argument precipitated his departure, but the move was undoubtedly a carefully planned element of the family business strategy, dictated by the economic climate prevailing at the time. Hostilities with France in the 1790s had disrupted the regular supply of British cottons to the continent and, since this trade was such an important component of the Rothschilds' business, it became expedient to settle a member of the family in England to purchase the goods and end the dependence on British travellers.

Having arrived in London towards the end of 1798, with access to £20,000 credit drawn on the Frankfurt house, Nathan Rothschild spent some time with his father's agents and business associates, learning English and establishing his own business contacts before setting out for Manchester in the spring of 1799.

In premises in Marsden Square, off Brown Street, in the centre of Manchester's commercial district, Rothschild established the firm of Rothschild Brothers and began to operate as a commission agent for his father's house. While the mainstay of the business was textiles, he also traded in commodities such as indigo, tea, grain, and precious stones, to sustain the business during difficult periods. His assessment of the Manchester cotton market reinforced his conviction that he could supply cotton goods to the continental market more cheaply than his competitors and, like his father, he operated on the principle of high turnover combined with low profit margins to retain the interest of clients. He realized that three profits might be derived from the industry: from the raw material, from the dyeing process, and from the manufactured goods.

Financial dealings and marriage

Rothschild also developed the business by opening a warehouse at 15 Brown Street to store the large quantities of raw textile materials he was able to buy when the price was cheap, using substantial credit drawn on his father's house. In addition he made cash purchases from small suppliers who were prepared to sacrifice some profit in return for ready money. By arranging for the bleaching, dyeing, and printing of the goods himself, he was able to offer a wider choice for European clients and reduce the cost of the finished goods. His recognition of what the customers wanted and his ability to provide it was evident at this and later stages of his career. His customers were secured initially via commissions from his father (the largest regular commission he received was Mayer Rothschild's order for cotton goods for the spring and autumn fairs in Frankfurt and Kassel) but he soon developed his own clientele, either by direct contact or through agents from European firms visiting Manchester. He himself travelled extensively in the British Isles and Europe, looking for the best supplies of raw material and collecting commissions for British textiles.

In 1804 Nathan Rothschild was established in a private house in Downing Street in the suburb of Ardwick, and Rothschild Brothers was thriving in spite of a general decline in the total exports of British cotton after the resumption of war in 1803. Nevertheless, he began to turn his energies away from commodities and to develop his skills as a financier. After he was granted letters of denization in 1804, he started to deal on the London stock exchange in financial instruments such as foreign bills and government securities.

On 22 October 1806 Rothschild married Hannah Barent Cohen (1783-1850), the daughter of Levi Barent Cohen, a wealthy and influential Dutch-Jewish merchant in the City and a leading figure in the Jewish establishment. The couple settled in a house with business premises in Mosley Street, Manchester, where their first child was born in 1807. They had four sons and three daughters. The marriage gave Rothschild a valuable social standing which was of great benefit in the early years of his business, and he also came to appreciate and acknowledge his wife's political and business sense. In his absence she had full authority to sign business documents on his behalf, and in his will he instructed his sons to consult their mother in business affairs. Hannah's family helped to extend the Rothschild network in useful directions. Her sister Judith married Moses Montefiore, and her sister Jessie married Meyer Davidson, who played an important role in the business of the London house and whose sons went on to establish Rothschild agencies in America. Two of her brothers, Benjamin and Samuel, were close business associates.

The shift of focus towards business in London increased by degrees, signified by the acquisition of a London home, first at 12 Great St Helen's in June 1808, and then, from March 1809, at 2 New Court, St Swithin's Lane, where the business was then carried on. Rothschild Brothers continued to trade under the management of its chief clerk, Joseph Barber, who operated from a warehouse in Back Lloyd Street, Manchester, from 1809 until the business there was finally wound up on 1 August 1811. In the period of transition, operating from both Manchester and London, Rothschild himself built up a reputation as one of the most reliable merchants accepting and discounting bills of exchange at competitive rates.

The bullion trade

From 1809 Rothschild began to deal in bullion, a trade which in time underpinned his whole business. It was this sector which was to trigger a series of events making the firm's position in the financial world at first dominant and then virtually unassailable. The ground was undoubtedly prepared by access to the funds of the elector of Hesse, William IX, who had for many years been a client of Mayer Rothschild. In 1806, with his territory occupied by Napoleonic troops, William was forced both to flee and to place his substantial assets in safe hands. His chief financial adviser, Carl Buderus, recommended that the funds should be entrusted to the Rothschilds. Much of the wealth lay in English government bonds but, as the continental blockade prevented the smooth transfer of the interest payments to the elector, Nathan Rothschild was able to use the funds for profitable short-term speculations on his own account.

Rothschild's pre-eminence in the bullion trade brought him to the attention of the British government in January 1814, when the administration needed to purchase large amounts of bullion in order to supply coin to pay Wellington's troops, on campaign in Europe against Napoleon, and to make subsidy payments to British allies. The chancellor of the exchequer, Nicholas Vansittart, authorized the commissary-in-chief, J. C. Herries, to instruct Rothschild to collect the coin in great secrecy across Europe. The reward of a 2 per cent commission was considered justifiable in view of the great risks associated with the enterprise.

The successful completion of this contract, so critical to the war effort, was of key importance for the future development of the house of Rothschild: it brought Nathan closer to government and reaffirmed his firm's dominant role in the bullion trade, and it also confirmed the Rothschild family as international operators. Nathan's family ties had indeed become valuable, and in this case critical, to the success of the business. Although he had been the first of his brothers to leave Frankfurt and to set up a permanent base elsewhere, the others had begun to follow his example, establishing Rothschild houses in other parts of Europe. While the eldest brother, Amschel (1773-1855), remained in Frankfurt, the youngest, James (1792-1868), had set up in Paris in 1812. Salomon (1774-1855) and Carl (1788-1855), who played a role in the bullion operation for the British government by travelling to locations in Europe where they were best able to purchase and ship gold, were later to found Rothschild houses in Vienna and Naples respectively. All the brothers served similar apprenticeships within the family firm and, in their new locations, were bound together in a deed of partnership first drawn up by their father in 1796 and subsequently renewed. Beyond the inner circle of family members a network of trusted agents and couriers was developing, drawn from the ranks of cousins and brothers-in-law. These close personal ties of kinship and faith enabled the firm to pursue its business across European boundaries in times both of peace and of war.

The family network was also to provide Nathan Rothschild time and again with political and financial information ahead of his peers, giving him an advantage in the markets and rendering the house of Rothschild still more invaluable to the government. So it was that he was able not only to mobilize his European connections for the task of maintaining the supply of coin for the government, but also, in 1815, to bring back to London the news of Wellington's victory at Waterloo a full day ahead of the government's official messengers. Contrary to stories emanating from an article about the family in a late nineteenth-century magazine with decidedly antisemitic undertones, Rothschild's first concern on this occasion was not the potential financial advantage on the market which the knowledge would have given him; he and his courier immediately took the news to the government.

The developing links with government enhanced Rothschild's position of influence within the establishment, and the deaths of Abraham Goldsmid and Sir Francis Baring in 1810 left him with no significant rival in the City. His developing experience and expertise were called upon by a number of government committees and inquiries, including a Commons' committee on criminal laws in 1819, and in 1827 a Lords' committee on the corn question. His financial capacity and discretion also led him to an involvement with the management of the financial affairs of individual members of the establishment, including George IV.

Broker to the Bank of England

Rothschild proved ready, when opportunity presented itself, to take his firm's growing expertise in the bullion trade into related areas of activity which would consolidate the family's position as market leaders. From 1824 he began to make private deals with the Bank of England, bypassing the sole official brokers, Mocatta and Goldsmid, challenging their monopoly and establishing himself as a reputable bullion broker. The relationship was no doubt strengthened when, in the following year, a series of small bank failures led to a run on the reserves of the Bank of England; Rothschild made substantial deposits of bullion over a prolonged period, thus averting a stoppage of payments. When, in 1840, the Bank of England formally ended the Mocatta monopoly, N. M. Rothschild & Sons became its major brokers.

Opportunities in the refining of gold were also seized. A contract with the Spanish government in 1834 ceded to Rothschilds the revenues of the Almaden quicksilver mines. The family already had interests in the Austrian Idria mines and the 1834 deal therefore secured for them a virtual European monopoly in this commodity, vital to the refining process.

Meanwhile, the family's position as a pan-European banking group was being consolidated. The success of the bullion operation in 1814 had brought them to the attention of Prince Metternich, with whom they developed close ties. The benefits to the London house became apparent in the aftermath of the Napoleonic wars when Rothschilds were seen as being the only bankers sufficiently cosmopolitan in outlook to handle the series of national loans required to ensure the stability of the post-Napoleonic political system. Of the four loans issued in 1822, the Austrian and Neapolitan were raised outside London, and the Russian and Prussian by N. M. Rothschild in London. The rewards were not solely financial: the brothers were made barons of the Austrian empire, an enhancement of their first ennoblement in 1817 which entitled them to use the prefix 'de' or 'von' in their names, and James and Nathan were both created Austrian consul-general, in Paris and London respectively. On completion of the relevant formalities, Nathan too would have been able to adopt the title 'Baron', but as a denizen of liberal England he clearly thought it unwise to be seen to accept honours from Metternich's reactionary regime. However, he registered English arms in 1818, and after his death his sons adopted the style of the Austrian barony.

Foreign loan business

In turn this series of events was to push the Rothschilds into the forefront of the handling of foreign loans. The family's successes in the 1820s led to their being recognized as leaders in the field, and Nathan Rothschild was credited with revolutionizing the whole business by arranging for dividends to be paid in London in sterling, thereby reducing the uncertainties of currency fluctuation which had previously beset this form of security. Investor confidence grew with a lengthening track record of success in selecting as clients governments who would not default on their obligations, and with the knowledge that the family's immense capital resources were adequate to meet all advances. At the time of Waterloo, the total capital of the Rothschild brothers was £136,000, of which Nathan's share was £90,000. By 1818 the total capital had increased to £1,172,000 and Nathan's share to £500,000.

Among loans in the 1820s three issues for Brazil formed the basis of a long connection between Rothschilds and its sovereign client. Later the firm was also enlisted in attempts to support the regimes in Greece and Portugal. Nathan Rothschild demonstrated his willingness to serve the needs of the British government by making a loan of £50,000 to Dom Miguel of Portugal in 1828, under the guarantee of the government, to enable the prince to succeed to his throne in a fitting manner. When it became obvious that the prince was not going to meet the expectations of Britain, the funds were returned to Rothschild by the British ambassador.

Not content to rest within the confines of the traditional business areas in which his expertise and influence were now assured, Rothschild joined forces in 1824 with his brother-in-law Moses Montefiore and others to form the Alliance British and Foreign Life and Fire Assurance Society, with offices in New Court, St Swithin's Lane. This joint-stock company-the only one in which Nathan Rothschild became involved-mounted a successful campaign to force parliament to withdraw the marine insurance monopoly privileges of Royal Exchange Assurance and London Assurance.

Foreign loans continued through the 1830s, including two to Belgium, one to Greece, and one to Portugal. In 1835 £15 million was raised to compensate slave owners in Jamaica and elsewhere in the wake of emancipation. Interests in Spanish quicksilver developed when in 1834 the Spanish government mortgaged the Almaden quicksilver mines to the Rothschild house as security for the payment of the interest on their loans. In the same year N. M. Rothschild became bankers to the United States government in Europe in place of Barings, a position they held until 1843.

Personality and private life

Rothschild's success as a financier can be attributed to his shrewd judgement and prodigious memory. His reliability in business, backed by the resources of the other family houses, secured for him a loyal clientele. He saw the long-term benefits to his business of developing an expertise in areas such as textiles and bullion and then exploring new ways of developing these areas to encompass related activities.

Nathan Rothschild could be irascible, and he often offended his business associates, but his frustrated outbursts should be seen in the light of his complete dedication to his business. The efforts of others, including his brothers, would not always meet the exacting standards he set for himself and expected from others. Nevertheless, while his brothers attributed the success of the family firm to Nathan, conceding that they owed him everything, he himself recognized the advantages of the partnership and was probably never seriously tempted to break free of it.

Rothschild was heavily built and rather stocky, though the name often used in family correspondence, Langbein, suggests the opposite. He was balding, with wispy red hair, and his round face featured bulging eyes and full lips. He was distressed by the first caricature which appeared, displaying in profile his substantial paunch. He never lost a heavy German accent, his spoken English being interspersed with his native language.

Rothschild frequently acknowledged his total absorption in his business, a trait he hoped his sons would inherit. Although his children developed interests in art and music, encouraged by their father and even more so by their mother, he himself never adopted cultural pursuits, nor did he feel constrained to do so for the sake of fashion. A visitor to his house in Stamford Hill, north London, remarked on the absence of artistic adornment with the exception of portraits of foreign sovereign clients.

Rothschild was able to use his prominent position in society in the service of his co-religionists. He had been a benefactor of the Jewish community in England since his earliest years in the country, supporting the Manchester synagogue and the Jews' Free School in London and becoming a governor of the London Hospital. His government contacts enabled him to serve the community in a more political way when, in the wake of the successful repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts in 1828 and the Catholic Emancipation Act in 1829, the Board of Deputies of British Jews decided to seek political emancipation. The board secured the services of Rothschild, Moses Montefiore, and others, as their champions in lobbying ministers. The first petition to the House of Commons was presented in 1829, and during the long campaign which ensued Rothschild determinedly took every opportunity at financial meetings to argue the cause. An early supporter of the campaign was Lord Bexley, formerly Nicholas Vansittart, who, as chancellor of the exchequer, had had reason to be grateful to Rothschild during the Napoleonic War. The needs of the Jewish community were also served by Rothschild's success in establishing Alliance Assurance, which employed and insured Jews and other nonconformists on an unprecedented scale.

Rothschild had secured the lease of his house in Stamford Hill in 1816. It was only in his later years that he aspired to a 'country house' of any substance, with the acquisition of an estate at Gunnersbury Park, Middlesex, in 1835. He died before the renovations to the building were finished. New Court continued as the home of the family's London banking enterprise but was abandoned as the family's town residence in 1825, when the family moved to 107 Piccadilly.

Death and burial

In May 1836 Rothschild travelled to Frankfurt to attend a family conference convened to admit his sons into the partnership and to celebrate the marriage of his eldest son, Lionel Nathan de Rothschild. During the journey he developed what is thought to have been an ischio-rectal abscess which was treated repeatedly but unsuccessfully in Frankfurt. The infected abscess proved fatal. Nathan Rothschild died of septicaemia on 28 July 1836. His body was brought back to London and lay in New Court until it was taken to the synagogue in Duke's Place for the funeral service and from there, with many City dignitaries in attendance, to the place of burial attached to the synagogue, in Brady Street in London's East End. Rothschild's will was proved in August 1836, at a little in excess of £1 million. His younger brother James, head of the Paris house, assumed the leading role in the family business, while Lionel became the head of the English house, which became known as N. M. Rothschild & Sons. Nathan Rothschild had led the family to an unparalleled position of influence which, though some of the entrepreneurial flair had undoubtedly died with him, his successors were able to build on for the rest of the century.

Hannah Rothschild survived her husband and died on 5 September 1850 of apoplexy, incurred while playing boisterously with her grandchildren at Gunnersbury. Her grave, next to her husband's, names her as Baroness Rothschild. Of their seven children, Charlotte (1807-1859) married her cousin Anselm of the Vienna house (her son Ferdinand de Rothschild built Waddesdon Manor in Buckinghamshire); Hannah Mayer (1815-1864) married the Hon. Henry FitzRoy; and Louise (1820-1894) married her cousin Mayer Carl of the Frankfurt house.

Their second son, Sir Anthony Nathan  de Rothschild, first baronet  (1810-1876), merchant banker , was born on 29 May 1810 at New Court, St Swithin's Lane, London. His early education was with his brother Lionel at a school in Peckham, and he studied at the universities of Gottingen and Strasbourg. Like his brothers and cousins he served an apprenticeship to the family firm, spending a year in the Frankfurt house, in 1829, and going to Paris in 1835, where he deputized for his uncle James during the absence of the latter in Frankfurt in 1836 for the marriage of Lionel. His mother's resistance to the idea seems to have ended plans for him to go to America in 1837, to investigate the affairs of the Rothschilds' agents in the New York financial crisis and with a view to establishing an American house. Anthony de Rothschild entered the family partnership in 1836. He was closely involved in the management of the Chemin de Fer du Nord, the family's main railway interest; he was also responsible for the running of the Royal Mint refinery in London from 1852, when Rothschilds acquired the lease.

On 30 March 1840 Anthony de Rothschild married Louisa (1821-1910) [see Rothschild,  Louisa de, Lady de Rothschild], daughter of the late Abraham Montefiore, and they had two daughters: Constance (1843-1931), who married in 1877 Cyril Flower, later Lord Battersea; and Annie (1844-1926), who married in 1873 the Hon. Eliot Yorke, son of the earl of Hardwicke. In spite of the English Rothschilds' assimilation, the marriage of Annie outside the Jewish faith during his lifetime caused her father some distress. There were no children of either marriage.

Anthony de Rothschild continued to live at 107 Piccadilly, and in 1851 he also acquired an estate at Aston Clinton, Buckinghamshire, an area soon endowed with public amenities for his tenants, including an infants' school which he built at Constance's request as a present for her sixteenth birthday. In spite of his considerable size he took part in local hunting pursuits, and he owned successful racehorses, including Carnelion and Coomassie. At Aston Clinton he entertained the prince of Wales at shooting parties and became his confidential financial adviser.

In 1844 Rothschild was appointed privy councillor of commerce to the king of Prussia, and in 1858 he succeeded his brother Lionel as Austrian consul in London when the latter took his seat in the House of Commons. In 1859, along with Lionel and Mayer Rothschild, he was granted the title of commander of the order of the rose, in recognition of Rothschilds' services as financial agents to Brazil.

Anthony de Rothschild was active in the Jewish community, strongly supporting the Jews' Free School and serving as presiding warden of the Great Synagogue from 1855 to 1875. When the United Synagogue was formed late in 1870, he became the first president.

Towards the end of his life Rothschild suffered from malignant pelvic tumours, and during his final illness he spent some time on board a vessel of the General Steam Navigation Company in the Solent. He died on 3 January 1876 of uraemic poisoning, at Weston Grove, St Mary Extra, South Stoneham, Southampton. He was buried in the Jewish cemetery in Willesden, London. On his death his baronetcy, granted in 1847, passed to Nathaniel Mayer de Rothschild, the eldest son of his brother Lionel.

Nathaniel  de Rothschild, Baron de Rothschild in the nobility of the Austrian empire  (1812-1870), merchant banker , the third son of Nathan and Hannah Rothschild, was born at New Court, St Swithin's Lane, London, on 2 July 1812. In February 1828 he and his brother Anthony were at university in Strasbourg. He began to participate in the firm in 1831 and worked unhappily yet dutifully in Naples in the early part of the year, before moving on to Paris in June. He worked permanently in Paris from 1840. In 1842 he married Charlotte, nee de Rothschild (1825-1899), daughter of his uncle James.

In common with his brothers Nathaniel de Rothschild was a regular hunter, but a fall left him half-paralysed for the remainder of his life. In spite of serious disabilities, including virtual blindness, he continued to play a respected role in the business, having letters and papers read aloud to him by a secretary and dictating letters to London almost daily.

In 1853 Rothschild, known informally as Nat, bought the vineyards near Bordeaux which became known as Mouton Rothschild, and in 1856 he bought 33 rue du Faubourg St Honore, Paris. He nevertheless maintained a lifelong devotion to English society and literature, and was known to be a great connoisseur of the arts. He had four children: Nathalie (b. 1843), who lived for only a few months; James Edouard (1844-1881), who married his cousin Laura-Therese; Mayer Albert (1846-1850); and Arthur (1851-1903), a respected philatelist.

Nathaniel de Rothschild died on 19 February 1870 and was buried in the family vault at Pere Lachaise, Paris.

Mayer Amschel  de Rothschild, Baron de Rothschild in the nobility of the Austrian empire  (1818-1874), merchant banker , the fourth son of Nathan and Hannah Rothschild, was born on 29 June 1818 at New Court, St Swithin's Lane, London. Educated at Leipzig University (1835), Heidelberg University (1836), and then briefly at Magdalene College, Cambridge, before migrating to a more tolerant Trinity College, he was prepared for a role within the business in which he actually took little part. On 26 June 1850 he married Juliana (1831-1877), daughter of Isaac Cohen, with whom he had one daughter, Hannah (1851-1890), who married on 20 March 1878 Archibald Philip Primrose, fifth earl of Rosebery.

Mayer de Rothschild established a stud farm at Crafton, near Mentmore, and was a member of the Jockey Club. He won the One Thousand Guineas three times (in 1853 with Mentmore Lass, in 1864 with Tomato, and in 1871 with Hannah); he won the Goodwood Cup twice (in 1869 with Restitution and in 1872 with Favonius); and in 'the baron's year' (1871) he won the Derby with Favonius, the One Thousand Guineas, the Oaks, and the St Leger, all with Hannah, and the Cesarewitch with Corisande. He was himself a keen hunter, in spite of his 16 stone frame.

In 1842 Mayer de Rothschild commissioned Sir Joseph Paxton and G. H. Stokes to build a country house at Mentmore, Buckinghamshire. Here he moved in 1855 with his wife and daughter, to whom the estate eventually passed after the death of her mother on board her yacht, Czarina, at Nice. Juliana organized working men's reading rooms at Mentmore in 1862.

Mayer de Rothschild became high sheriff of Buckinghamshire in 1847, and in 1859 he was elected Liberal MP for Hythe, which he served until his death. He died on 6 February 1874 at 107 Piccadilly of atrophy, the result of cachexia, and was buried at the Jewish cemetery at Willesden, London.

Victor Gray 

Melanie Aspey 

Sources  R. Davis, The English Rothschilds (1983) + S. D. Chapman, N. M. Rothschild (1977) + Lord Rothschild, The shadow of a great man (1982) + Count Corti [E. C. Corti], The rise of the house of Rothschild, trans. B. Lunn and B. Lunn (1928) + E. C. Corti, Count Corti, The reign of the house of Rothschild (1928) + CGPLA Eng. & Wales (1876)
Archives Rothschild Archive, London, MSS | BL, corresp. and accounts with John Charles Herries, Add. MSS 57366-57469
Likenesses  R. Dighton, caricature, coloured etching, pubd 1817, NPG, V&A, Historisches Museum, Frankfurt am Main · W. A. Hobday, group portrait, 1821 (with his family), priv. coll. · stipple, pubd 1827 (after C. Penny), NPG · J. P. Dantan, plaster statuette, 1833, Musee Carnavalet, Paris · M. D. Oppenheim, oils, 1836, priv. coll. · Standidge & Lemon, lithograph, pubd 1836 (after Edouart), NPG · Milligan, bust, priv. coll. · M. D. Oppenheim, oils, priv. coll. [see illus.]
Wealth at death  under £1,800,000-Sir Anthony Nathan de Rothschild: probate, 1876 · under £2,100,000-Mayer Amschel de Rothschild: probate, 1875




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